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Using these BINs, the DE transcripts were classified into 34 categories , while 307, 319, and 146 transcripts differentially expressed, respectively, with EC, HT, and EC × HT were assigned to BIN 35 “no ontology/unknown”. The results using the MapMan categories highlight that only a small proportion of genes related to primary and secondary metabolisms were up or downregulated . Most of the genes that were DE belonged to categories such as stress, RNA and DNA metabolisms, miscellaneous enzyme families, protein and signaling. While several genes were upregulated under EC or the interaction EC × HT relative to control treatment, most of them were downregulated under HT. Figure 6 Significant changes in transcript levels associated with metabolic pathways under the combination of elevated and high temperature relative to the treatment under ambient and temperature.
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Physiological And Biochemical Responses To Elevated Co2 And High Temperature
Taken together, these results reflect there were changes in cellular transport for maintenance of plant cellular homeostasis and growth in response to EC. A total number of 395 million PE short-read sequences (77.2 Gb), were generated for the 12 libraries and used for downstream analysis, with an average of 65.9 million reads per sample . Nonetheless, it is important to consider that some matches described a homologous locus/gene in other species without any annotation.
- The increase in photosynthesis caused by EC results in an increase in carbohydrate production, which may alter the C/N balance of wheat plants.
- Higher fructan and starch contents were also found in the flag leaves, which may be indicative of a sink limitation (Ainsworth et al., 2004).
- It is important to highlight that developmental processes are tightly regulated by redox states .
- The biochemical and transcriptional response under combined EC × HT provides new insights into the complex coordination of central metabolism with other secondary metabolic pathways involving plant hormones, transcriptional regulators, etc., in plant acclimation.
- EC led to a reduction of stomatal conductance and transpiration , and an increase in intercellular , with greater Ci values at AT than HT.
This result suggests that EC presumably promotes protein turnover, concurrent with the induction of several genes assigned to protein synthesis/degradation, and posttranslational modifications. Heat shock proteins have also been implicated in regulation of oxidative stress (Wang et al., 2004). In line with this observation, several genes encoding proteins involved in ROS detoxification and protection from oxidative damage were upregulated, as glutathione-S-transferase and β-carotene hydroxylase . A few orthologues to cytochrome P450 family, which catalyze the oxidation of different compounds in plants and are major players in detoxification of pesticides and other pollutants (Morant et al., 2003), were also upregulated. It is important to highlight that developmental processes are tightly regulated by redox states . The proline accumulation could also be related with the control of redox balance, as mentioned above.
Red Flag Symptoms: Abdominal Pain
The transcript levels of seven genes involved in primary metabolism were evaluated by qRT-PCR . The results of the relative expression of these genes under EC, HT, and its combination from qRT-PCR and RNA-Seq analysis were compared . A similar pattern of changes were obtained from both techniques, which validates the RNA-Seq results. Intriguingly, the majority of genes potentially involved in regulation, as those for hormone metabolism, protein kinases and phosphatases, receptor kinases, TFs, etc., were repressed . The repression of genes involved in cell growth found in our experiments, such as histones and DNA polymerases, has also been reported in other studies .
Our finding provides evidence that the impairment of primary metabolism induced by EC may have marked consequences for secondary metabolism, as reported previously in other plant species (Ainsworth et al., 2006). The increasing threat of global warming on agricultural production worldwide requires dissecting the mechanisms that regulate plant responses not only to EC or HT, but also to the interaction of both factors, in order to develop stress-tolerant crops. The transcriptome sequencing is a powerful tool for the identification of relevant metabolic processes and underlying molecular mechanisms in the response of durum wheat to climate change. The reprograming of the mitochondrial electron transport pathway was consistent with increased coupling of respiration to ATP production. It also provides novel information with respect to genes involved in the activation of cell expansion and growth, maintenance of protein homeostasis, and ROS detoxification and protection from oxidative damage in response to EC.
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With a minimum k-mer coverage of 10 (minimum count of k-mers to be assembled), 196,843 contigs in 60,209 transcripts (unigenes/loci) were obtained. Transcript redundancy was tested using CD-HIT software with identity of 95%, although the number of redundant transcripts was negligible. Functional annotation of the durum wheat transcript data set was based on the large amount of public data for wheat and other plant species. Furthermore, a BLASTN/BLASTX search for all the transcripts against different databases (TAGI release 12 for bread wheat, TIGR release 1 and 2 for bread and durum wheat, Brachypodium genome v1.2 at PlantGDB, and rice genome release 7) was achieved using BLAST+ and an E-value cutoff of 1e−3 to improve transcript annotation. While a DNA array is available for bread wheat, quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) has been the most commonly used technique for transcript profiling of wheat grown under future climate scenario (Jauregui et al., 2015; Vicente et al., 2015a; Vicente et al., 2016). RNA-Seq studies in wheat are rapidly increasing (Duan et al., 2012; Oono et al., 2013; IWGSC, 2014; Kumar et al., 2015; Pingault et al., 2015; Curci et al., 2017) thanks to the reconstruction of the whole transcriptome by using de novo assembly of short paired-end reads.
Mapping Of Reads To Durum Wheat Transcript Data Set, Normalization, And Identification Of Differentially Expressed Transcripts
Venn diagrams exhibited an overlap of 419 DE transcripts between, at least, two treatments, while 223 of them were altered in all three treatment combinations relative to the control. A total of 27% and 29% of the DE transcripts were uniquely responsive to EC and HT, respectively, while only 4% was unique for EC × HT. Upregulation of 210, 19, and 36 genes, and downregulation of 465, 669, and 294 genes was detected under EC, HT, and EC × HT relative to control treatment, respectively .
Red Flag Symptoms: Headaches
The discrepancies found in wheat responses to EC × HT could likely be explained by the differences in the severity and the duration of the temperature rise, among other factors. To complement functional categories based on MapMan annotations, we evaluated the GO terms associated with the DE genes. A total of 387, 376, and 213 GO terms were related to durum wheat responses to EC, HT, and the EC × HT interaction, respectively . Attending to the GO terms with the highest occurrence under the different environmental growth conditions, we found that the top five high frequency GO terms for molecular function, cellular component, and biological process were nearly the same for EC, HT, and EC × HT relative to control treatment.
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